Bennett Explores the Fine Line Between Wisdom and Foolishness in ‘the History Boys’. Discuss with Reference to This Comedic Drama.

Bennett explores the fine line between wisdom and foolishness in ‘The History Boys’. Discuss with reference to this comedic drama. The fine line between wisdom and foolery has often been explored and blurred in dramatic comedies throughout the ages. Often, in Shakespeare’s plays especially, the fool figure turns out to be the wisest figure out of all of the other characters, and is used as a way to make a comment on the social context of the time.This theme is present in ‘The History Boys’, as Bennett mostly uses characters as a way of exploring the fine line. He also uses scenes and themes during the play to explore the fine line between wisdom and foolishness, but he tends to focus on using the characters to explore the line instead. The Headmaster is a character with whom, when first introduced to, the audience would appoint the title of ‘foolish’, as Bennett shows him to be a very foolish character.However, this would differ from Shak espeare’s fool; in his plays the fools were often the wisest of characters, but in this circumstance, with this character, the Headmaster acts foolish without becoming ‘the fool’ from Shakespeare, as the Headmaster doesn’t have the hidden wisdom and knowledge Shakespeare’s fools had. For instance, when discussing competing schools in the league tables with Mrs Lintott, he says ‘†¦Leighton Park. Or is than an open prison?No matter†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This quote shows the reader what a foolish man Bennett has created; a headmaster not knowing the difference between a competing school in the league tables and a prison is absurd. However, it helps Bennett to show the fine line between wisdom and foolery, as some members of the audience may think that the Headmaster is wise in some of the decisions he makes, as he does know methods to get the students to achieve academic levels that allow entry into Oxbridge.Another moment where Bennett explores th e fine line is when he says, upon discussing Oxbridge with the supply teacher Irwin, ‘I thought of going to, but this was the fifties. Change was in the air†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The first impression given of him from this line of speech is that the characters around him must be able to see through his lies and see the fool that he ultimately is; in the fifties, life was the same as in the forties; it was the sixties where ‘change was in the air’ and the characters around the Headmaster would know that he was ying to cover the fact that he wasn’t academically smart enough to attend Oxbridge. This does show him to hold some wisdom, however, as he was smart enough to cover up the fact that he didn’t attend Oxbridge, even if the lie wasn’t successful, and that he is wise as he does want the best for the boys, but again, this is outweighed by the foolish decision that is to get the boys to Oxbridge to raise the school in the league tables to ‘†¦enhance its reputation and thereby his own career†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ showing he is mostly trying to get the boys do to well for his benefit.Bennett also uses the character of the Headmaster to make a social comment of the schooling at the time he wrote the play, hinting that headmasters of schools often tried to get the better grades for the students only to pull their school up in the league tables, and thereby improve their own reputations of headmasters. A second character Bennett uses to explore the fine line between wisdom and foolishness is Hector, one of the boy’s teachers.One of the first impressions we get of Hector is that he is a character who Bennett presents to be very wise; he has taught the boys so well they can quote literature at any time of the day in the correct context ‘†¦Posner (Edgar) ‘Look up, My Lord. ’ Timms (Kent) ‘Vex not his ghost†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This is quite a feat to achieve, and it also shows that he too knows and und erstands when and where to quote literature, again showing his wisdom.However, this is a point where Bennett does show how fine the line between wisdom and foolishness actually is, as some people may view this skill as useless, as it probably won’t be able to help them in their university or working life, unless they pursue a career where literature and the need to quote it is needed, so this act may be viewed as quite foolish; spending time teaching the boys something they probably won’t need in their future lives, despite the fact that they and Hector may be considered wise for having this skill.Bennett does show Hector to be a character who does act very foolish sometimes; ‘No Headmaster, (He covers his ears. )†¦Non. Absolument non. Non. Non. Non†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢. The stage directions used here make Hector act like a naughty child who is refusing to stop what they’re doing; a grown man, who is a teacher nonetheless, acting this way does appear to be a fool to people around him, even if they know he is only pretending. However, this is one of the moments where you can explicitly tell that Bennett is exploring the fine line etween wisdom and foolishness and is showing indeed how very fine it is; some people may see past Hector acting like a fool and see him to be very wise; he knows that if he carries on refusing to do what the Headmaster askes of him, the Headmaster may well just give up and drop the subject. This could be down to the fact that Hector doesn’t view the Headmaster as a wise man; more of a fool who you can walk over and expect to carry on doing things the way you want to, even if the Headmaster is against it. ‘A hand on a boy’s genitals at fifty miles an hour, and you call it nothing? This is a very important quote in showing how Bennett explores the fine line. Hector is a very wise man; he has a deep understanding and knowledge of literature, he has helped get the boys A-Levels up to the standa rds of Oxbridge and is, academically, quite smart. However, the quote shows that, in terms of his judgements, he is quite a fool; the acts he performed were frowned upon by society at the time, and show to many people that he has crossed the line between wisdom and foolishness with ease without really realising it. †¦transmission of knowledge†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This also shows how his judgements are foolish, and how he can be seen to be a fool by many people; when he is confronted about his actions, he uses quotes from poetry to try to get out of the confrontation. By the end of the play, many people would probably see Hector as a very wise man, but a man who has the tendency to cross the fine line between wisdom and foolishness, whilst others would see him as only being a fool, despite his knowledge in literature.Overall, Hector is probably Bennett’s main way to explore the fine line between wisdom and foolishness, as Hector crosses the line countless times without realisin g it himself. Another way Bennett explores the fine line between wisdom and foolishness is by using scenes, such as the French Scene. This scene takes place towards the start of the play, and is where Hector and the boys practise speaking fluent French by acting out a scene of their choice in French. Mais une maison de passe ou tous les clients utilisent le subjonctif ou le conditionnel, oui? ’ (But a brothel where all clients use the subjunctive or conditional, yes? ) This quote is taken from the scene and helps to show the wise and the foolish sides of Hector; he and the students are acting out a scene in fluent French (which in itself is a very academic skill for the students to have learnt) and Hector is quite wise in getting them to practise using their French in everyday scenes, thus improving their fluency.However, the foolish part is the fact that the scene they are all acting out is a brothel, which is a very foolish thing to do considering where they are (in a schoo l), but the fact that Hector keeps on going on about their grammar whilst speaking French does show some wisdom, with the fact that he knows exactly how to get the boys to improve their fluency and grammatical skill in French, but in a very foolish circumstance. A third way the fine line between wisdom and foolishness is through themes; specifically the themes of sexuality and sex.For sexuality; ‘†¦Don’t touch him†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ This quote is quite important in showing the fine line between wisdom and foolishness, as it is said when Hector and Irwin are discussing Hector’s early retirement, teaching and Dakin. Bennett shows here that Hector’s foolish decisions have turned him into a wiser man, who is advising Irwin on how not to make the same foolish mistake he did. The foolishness here makes the scene quite tragic rather than comic. For the theme of sex, the fine line is explored when Dakin and Scripps have a conversation together about Fiona (the He admaster’s secretary). †¦like particularly her tits, which only fell after a prolonged campaign some three weeks ago†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The wordplay in this conversation is very foolish indeed, which Scripps finds funny albeit embarrassing, but the wisdom in Dakin is evident by the way Dakin applies military logistics to a new context with ease, using the semantic field of war. Overall, these are the main ways Bennett uses to explore the fine line between wisdom and foolishness in ‘The History Boys’, mainly using the characters of the Headmaster and Hector.

Early Childhood Education application essay Essay

This article gives a study of how we can apply the material in an Early Childhood institution from the novel `Different Children Different Needs` by Charles F. Boyd. This book can be taken as a channel showing parents and teachers in any institute on how to be more efficient by knowing the personality God has given each child. Boyd applies a DISC style of traits of parents’ personality for application in parent-child affiliations. Although, this book is mainly on good parenting which allows you to review your and your child’s qualities and as a result, helps you in improving communication with no friction between parents and children. The material in this book can also be very useful in any institutional environment. Based on this knowledge, this study gives a brief evaluation of the application and knowledge specifically in an institute’s environment and the experience from it. Knowledge and Application This book assists you in understanding that every child has a unique personality and none of them are right or wrong but just different. As in the novel Boyd writes â€Å"As parents, we need to discover our children’s natural styles and help each one grow up according to his unique, in-born, God-given design† (Charles Boyd. 4). Writer uses the DISC personality sketch descriptions to understand and help you to re-open blocked communication with your child. It’s as easy as opening by inquiring yourself if your child is a bit lazy or active, people person or a loner? The material and tools presented in ‘Different Children, Different Needs’ will take the anonymity out of the way on how you interrelate with each other. In the book, we look at a tool referred to as â€Å"the art of flexible parenting† or parenting by plan. It is a method which presents us with an opportunity to raise our kids that procures into account equally how God has designed our style and personality and how He has designed our children. This uncomplicated and realistic model enables us to realize our normal bent and the way it influences our parenting style, determine our children’s design, comparison between the first two and adjusting our style so as it fulfils the style and requirements of our children. It helps in fashioning an atmosphere of encouragement and support which results in enhanced parent-child communication and eases common areas of clashes. The methods and tools given in this book can not only help parents in understanding their children better but also prove helpful in Children institutes by giving teachers an insight to his/her pupils mind and personality and making them realize that not every student cannot be the top person and that someone has to take the bottom position whether it be academic performance or co-curricular activities. After having an understanding of such basics, these Institutes can make sure that each student is treated as an individual and not be compared with others who are either doing better or worst than him and thus improved student-teacher relation which will result in better results. This model will assist in developing an atmosphere of encouragement and support and can have results like an increased self-confidence and self-discovery. After reading this book, you will start to comprehend things you never understood in relation to the most excellent way to communicate to each unique student in a class. Students will appear to appreciate how God has designed them and made each and everyone of them exceptional in his own way, maturing in self-confidence and discovering a sense of fitting in somewhere. And you will get pleasure from fulfilling your mentoring experience you’ve forever wished for. Understanding and Experience A Childs education starts from home. Education plays a very significant part in altering lives of children. This book gives a concept of parenting pollution. Parenting pollution refers, to the desire of every parent to raise their children the way they think they should. If we observe carefully, we see that the same idea is applied in children institutions where teacher expects the student to be as smart as the teacher was when he was students’ age, or think the same way as he used to think and mostly compare students with each other. The truth is, it is important to realize that with changing times, minds maturity level changes, and children nowadays, grasp and perceive things differently then we used to. The one part of the book that I thought could be really helpful if all could read it and enjoy is a number of pages of encouraging â€Å"one-liners† which can be used to build your child’s or your students self-confidence some of which includes sayings like when asked a student to perform a task in classroom and if he is taking longer than some other students, instead of saying this discouraging thing â€Å"What’s taking you so long? â€Å", what you can say is, â€Å"You do things specifically and correctly. † (Haim Ginott, 23) That line sums up the â€Å"observe, don’t judge† philosophy of child psychologist Haim Ginott which one should try very often for miraculous results. (Haim Ginott, 23) Some stuff you read in this book is pretty basic on parenting like be patient with a child , Don’t hurry or push him, be open at times when your child wants to do things differently than you feel like etc. But observe carefully that do you really do all this basic stuff all the time or you are really a moody person Conclusion The DISC character system on which all of the suggestion in this book is based is not exactly a specific personality test but in actually just a self-discovery test where you can ponder over you actions and those of your children and then apply them in Children Institutions. The concluding remark is that Parenting by plan is a technique you can utilize to fine-tune your parenting technique according to your children and students as each of them has different personality and psychology. It can really help is making parents and teachers understand that even if the personalities of their children clashes with their own, it can still be a positive relation and parents being older have to take the first step which may just include getting a copy of this book. References Boyd, Charles. 2004. Different Children, Different Needs. Published by Multnomah Books Ginott, Haim. 1996. Between

History and Principles of Education Essay

The principles which should control educational methods are to be sought in human nature. During a considerable period of early man life, life is helpless and ignorant and without strength and knowledge necessary it is difficult to maintain an independent existence (Painter, 1904). Therefore it is in this fact that renders education a necessity. Function of Education The function of education is to give the processes of physical and mental growth which assist and direct a person during the formative periods of childhood and youth. The end of education is complete human development which is attained by leading the several parts of man’s nature to a harmonious realization of their highest possibilities (Davidson, 1990). Aim of Education Education aims at developing a noble type of manhood and man has various duties to perform in the world which need special training and a wide range of knowledge. Education also aims to develop its subjects for their place in the established order of things. Its object is to impress upon each generation traditional ideas and customs and hence prepare it to take its place, in the established order of society. Elements of Education The two elements of education which are inseparable are development and acquisition of knowledge. Without development the individual lacks strength to grapple with the problem of life and without knowledge the person remains a cipher in society. (Painter, 1904) History of Education For the purpose of education villages in the ancient times had their schools, districts their academics, departments their colleges and principalities their universities. The wealthy in China made education respectable and popular as it opened the only road to political ambition as all officers of government had to study and pass examinations. The ancient classical nations, Greece and Rome are earliest representatives of European civilization as they contributed to Christianity and modern science and invention. Modern nation achievement and importance now demand recognition. Science has developed and made contribution to modern progress and commerce and invention has largely broken down narrow national prejudice. The history of education has left people with complete records of thoughts and achievements which have been incorporated in education. In education they mark an obvious advance upon the defective systems of the orient (Anthony & Benson, 2003). In Greece, in the history of education two cities, that is, Sparta and Athens used records to complete a system of education which was developed. During this heroic age of Troy education possessed a single character which was patriarchial. The fathers trained the sons to physical strength and the mother trained the daughter on household duties and domestic virtues. Greece had a supply of luxuries for the market place and along with their wares; merchants also provided abundance of stories about customs and local traditions which formed part of education. Cultural patterns from distant lands were accepted and assimilated into their own as Greek civilization sought to assimilate the best from foreign lands and accepted views of people even if they were differing. The Greek knew literature, art, poetry, drama, music, rhetoric which was included in education (Anthony & Benson, 2003). Education from the Reformation to the Present Time The reformation of the 16th century is the greatest event of education in modern history. It opened the literacy content of Greece and Rome which provided a new culture of education. The costly method of copying books by hand increased the sources of knowledge and brought it within reach to a lot of people who are readers. The Roman education was dominated by the family in the 753-272 B. C. and the father held the role of supreme authority. The family was the unit of the roman constitution, the custodian of ancestral tradition and the focal point of religious and educational activities. Cicero, one of the men in Rome, held Greek literary and philosophical education which he thought was useful and necessary in the basic educational curriculum of every roman citizen for them to be a contributing member of society. This way many roman citizen understood both classic Greek and Latin as well as Christian education hence it was a fine blend of both education systems ( Rowman & Littlefield, 1976) Christian education led to increase in schools like county schools, town schools, Latin schools and university in protestant countries due to religion. The relation of Christianity to education came about when education of paganism was thought imperfect as it was controlled by the wrong principles and did not look at the worth of individual in all its fullness. Christian education is indebted to the Old Testament people which provided on how to live in a rightful way (Graves, 1915). After Jews returned from exile they established schools for the education of their children. In the early Sumerian civilization the Sumer’s achievement were the development of the system of writing and the formal system of education. The subjects of instructors were originally catechism and singing but reading, writing and arithmetic’s were added later. The 18th century witnessed a new movement which was characterised by human education which based its educational principles on nature only. Here education was important as in the mind of the enlightened philosophers it prepared people to live according to the principles of nature which used scientific methods. Education in 19th Century The field of knowledge had widened and was within reach by 19th century. Pestalozzi is an educational reformer since the reformation who did much to popularise education by devoting his life in the educational world. He was distinguished for learning and became the medium through which all that was best educational theory obtained permanent recognition. Principles of Education The principles of education intend to provide a foundation on how to develop and teach courses which should have long impacts on individual lives, as teaching and learning is the reason of a learning institution. These principles will guide the learning institution into the future. The learning institution should maintain a learning environment that values the process of learning as much as the knowledge taught. This environment should encourage independent thinking and divergent activities which inspires students and elevate them. The learners should be inspired to develop independent, interdependent life long learning strategies, nurture their aspirations, imagination and confidence and possess self determination with a realistic assessment of ones attitude and inclinations. Education should promote effective expression in many forms for making public meaning and personal skills for individuals to be able to communicate with others effectively. Education should increase knowledge and thinking of an individual to be able to think critically and conduct discipline inquiry in order to understand complexity and simplicity of ideas and to prioritise and make decisions. Reform and education innovation most be addressed in the context of universal principles of human nature as the goal of education is success. Curriculum of education should be vigorous with standards alighted and necessary resources, professional teachers and maintain the assessment and accountability system to be effective. Opinion Education is a vital part in human development and it is important in our day lives. The principles of education have to be followed for there to be effective learning. The learning institutions should hire staffs that have the relevant skills for knowledge to be administered fully. Education has evolved through many centuries through the Roman, Greek and Christianity ages. An individual who has educations should be able to solve problems because that person has analytical skills and problem solving skills which are acquired through education. Education is still evolving as new ways of learning are being discovered and the introduction of technology has made it easy for people to learn through programs which facilitate e-learning hence education is a continuous process. Reference Christian Education; Principles for The Twenty-First Century, Kregel Publication, ISBN 0825420237. Frank Pierrepont Graves, (1915) A Student’s history of Education, Macmillan Co. Francosco Cordasco, (1976) A Brief History of Education; A handbook of Information on Greek, Roman, Medieral, Renaissance, Rowman and Littlefield, ISBN 0822600676. Franklin Verzelius Newton Painter, (1904) A History of Education, D. Appleton and company. Michael J. Anthony and Warren S. Benson, (200) Exploring the history and Philosophy of Thomas Davidson, (1900) A History of Education, Constable.

Chinese Architecture The Forbidden City and Spatial Hierarchies Essay

Chinese Architecture The Forbidden City and Spatial Hierarchies - Essay Example x† was put up with enormous spacing with various sections as described by the purpose for which it was supposed to serve (Ching, Jarzombek, and Prakash 17). MacFarquhar explains that the city took up to fifteen years to construct (33). It is made of 800 buildings with 9000 rooms, which serve various purposes. Generally it is known to be the world’s largest palace with fine architectural knowledge applied. The Qing and Ming dynasties did exist along with the Chinese civilization as evident in the palace. Urban planning in the Chinese construction is highly evident by the manner in which the buildings are spatially distributed. Various ethnic cultures were represented inside the palace, including the religions that existed in China. Hence, it was entirely an integration of diversities in building techniques and designs. The commencement of the construction followed an order from the Ming dynasty. There are 114 buildings in the palace of the Qing Dynasty which is a typical indicator of the last ruling dynasty in China just prior to the expansion of power to the middle of China. The middle axis architectural design was made so as to support the emperor’s political issues (Knapp 44). The architectural techniques used in the Forbidden City gives a reflection of the global view of the Chinese architects. This is made clear by the manner in which the buildings are arranged and carried to other parts of China and beyond. Knapp explores the composition of the city including the southern inner city and the outer city situated in the south (23). There are gates which usher in the next step of progression as one gets into the city. There is a central axis and a symmetrical design having the inner court at the rear while the outer court in the front. There is an additional landscape courtyard that originates from the layout of Yuan He City. This is purely a distinctly classified construction technique that dictated the manner of constructing of the subsequent

ENG 305T Annotated Bibliography Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

ENG 305T Annotated Bibliography - Research Paper Example By managing personal time an individual becomes able to eliminate wastage, abstain from excessive workloads, be equipped for meetings, supervise project progress, distribute resources like time in an appropriate way according to the task's importance, and ensure concentration on long-term projects, planning each day effectively and similarly each week efficiently. This article offers practices that may enable in the effective management of time. As mentioned by Blair, â€Å"This involves the simplistic task of keeping a note of how you spend your time for a suitably long period of time (say a week).† The main practiced involve waste disposal, avoiding subordinate work by delegating, making appropriate appointments, scheduling projects, monitoring staff and paying attention to long term objectives. Personal Time Management is thus an organized appliance of strategies based on common sense strategies. It necessitates little effort, nevertheless it encourages efficient work exerc ises by spotlighting wastage and it contributes to effectual use of time by concentrating it on one’s chosen activities.† Bridge, Tim. ... The author emphasizes on personal time management by being obliged by one’s own need and therefore based on one’s need makes it more difficult to acquire and be utilized till its full potential. According to the author, the skill of managing time effectively requires time for development and perfection so a variety of approaches are suggested to be attempted. The Tips offered in the given article include briefly enlisting everything that needs to be done. As quoted by the author â€Å"Write as much down as you can. If you don’t carry a planner or notebook already, start. Personally, I’ve always preferred a small, simple, white-lined notebook because you aren’t restricted by the various boxes and lines of the average planner† (Bridge). The second way suggested by the author is â€Å"make use of down time† emphasizing on the prioritization of the tasks. The third way is to reward oneself upon accomplishment of each goal. Then the author suggests to â€Å"concentrate on one thing† i.e. instead of multitasking, prioritizing each task and attempting to complete each task one by one. The other way to achieve time management is to avoid procrastination, as quoted by the author â€Å"When trying to be more productive and trying to save time, procrastination should be avoided like nothing else. It is the ultimate productivity-killer† (Bridge). Then the author suggests to set deadlines personally and penalizing oneself on missing them. The other ways suggested by the author include delegating responsibility, planning long term goals, implementing a software program such as RescueTime to check the amount of time wasted in useless activities, team work and avoiding burnouts.

1.Should the United States act alone and begin carbon cap and trade or Essay

1.Should the United States act alone and begin carbon cap and trade or should we only do it if the rest of the world does as well - Essay Example With the debate ensuing regarding the US taking the first step towards environment protection and its possible implications on global impact, economic growth and possible trend setting role, there are many angles to study this concept from. This paper is aimed at highlighting the various aspects of imposing a carbon cap in the US, its pros and cons and the feasibility of taking such step in the long and short term. It is not a new fact that the pollutants that are exhausted into the atmosphere as a result of industrial activities damage and human activities cause climatic changes and other greenhouse effects. Carbon dioxide is the leading greenhouse gas and comes not only from industrial operations and human activities like burning of fossil fuels and in energy but also from some other natural sources such as animal respiration, volcanic eruptions and decay of plants. The accumulation of large amount of carbon dioxide from the diverse sources in the atmosphere results into catastrophic impacts of climate change in the environment. To tackle climatic changes and the negativities that emerge as a result of pollutants, it has become imperative for countries to strive on their level to minimize their contribution towards environmental harm. Carbon Cap is one such concept that has emerged as a result of this changing trend towards environment friendliness. It basically restricts the extent of carbo n emissions into the atmosphere and exceeding the prescribed limit makes the operating firm liable to pay a carbon tax (Shapiro, 2007). Carbon cap and trade is an approach to curb environmental destruction by greenhouse gases. This approach is environmentally and economically feasible and practical which is centrally driven by global warming. â€Å"Cap† and â€Å"trade† terms imply setting limits for greenhouse emissions and

Pipeline Project in Canada Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Pipeline Project in Canada - Essay Example However, it needs a Presidential Permit as aforementioned. The projects overall positive effects will be considered. The pipeline project is in accordance firstly with the National Environment Policy Act. However an alternate route still needs to be found to avoid the Sand Hills region of Nebraska, which is an environmentally sensitive area (Flynn & Burnett, 2012). About The Project Many republicans, labor groups and industry groups support the pipeline project as they believe that it would bring about the opportunity of thousands of jobs in the US not only during its construction, but after it as well. It would also reduce dependence on oil from abroad since it would lead to the US having access to the largest oil reserve. Since if the project continues, it would bring in 700,000 barrels of oil to US daily which would be less the price and double the amount that it currently imports from Middle East. It is a project that needs to be ready and started and Republicans do not understan d Obama’s move for delaying the project (Belogolova, 2011). The project is also estimated to bring in an increase of $20 million spending in private sector of the economy, and at a point where oil demand is weak and unemployment is rising, it will spur the economy. Also, if this project is approved, it will spur all aspects of the economy, which is becoming weaker and more dependent on imports (Belogolova, 2011). During construction of the pipeline alone, there is estimated to be a $20 billion increase in spending in the economy, and 118,000 jobs are expected to be created as well. 585 million dollars are also expected to be raised for both local and state taxes that are going to be on the route of the pipeline (transcanada). Many labor unions have also signed with TransCanada because of the perceived benefits of the project on jobs, employment and revenue. They have even signed terms of agreement with the company however, due to President Obama’s recall, their jobs ar e not established as of yet. This is also a privately financed project and therefore it will create jobs in manufacturing and construction and doesn’t need a single penny from the government. This effect of increased demand and supply will also have an effect on other factors in the economy as demand for goods and services in other interrelated industries will increase around the area of the pipeline project. This is called the multiplier effect. It has also been established through scrutiny and survey that it would have a limited detrimental impact on the US economy and would rather enhance the security of the economy. America’s workers want to work with this project which is important even for President Obama (Parformak, Service., & al, 2011). The four International Unions are also committed to work on this project as soon as the President gives the green light. Canada is a new player in the world energy market with the newly discovered oil sands. The current pipelin e is finding it difficult to keep up with the new discoveries and bulk of oil. Also Canada and U.S are strong trading partners; however Canada is in strong demand now due to this new discovery of oil sands and if US keeps delaying the construction of this pipeline project, Canada will give in to the oil hungry world that seems to show more interest. And these energy sources are a stable energy source and therefor US should realize this and agree soon. This can also break the OPEC hold and if Obama

Research Paper Why Gay Marriage should be banned Moral Argument Essay

Research Paper Why Gay Marriage should be banned Moral Argument - Essay Example sary in this conflict is a new arsenal of weaponry: one which neither relies upon the rejection of natural law nor upon steadfast religious conservatism. The problem regarding the latter is that it cannot provide the justification needed, in argument, to prove the incorrectness of the opposite side’s view. That is, religious arguments against same-sex marriage are mere opinion, or, as Plato called it: doxa (Bourdieu). The problem regarding the former—a rejection of natural law—will be dealt with later on. So, instead of relying on old and tried arguments, this discussion will hope to achieve consensus with a new account of why such marriage rites are morally reprehensible—an account which does not rely on any theological groundwork. The hope will be to use a theory of natural law, one which dates back over two millennia, to prove that there is no â€Å"natural goodness† inherent in same-sex marriage. This entails a detailed examination of reality to determine the metaphysical truth on which we will ground moral claims and establish them as irrefutable. In the end, it shall be proven beyond a reasonable doubt that same-sex marriage violates natural law—a moral theory based on the dictates of reality—and must not be allowed. Firstly, however, an account of the natural law tradition is necessary. â€Å"Natural law theory†, indeed, has been labeled on a variety of theories of civil law, theories of ethics (both religious and secular), and theories of politics. The focus here, of course, will be on natural law theories of secular ethics, and although the discussion will involve St. Thomas Aquinas, none of Aquinas’ metaphysical (or theological) views shall be considered. Knowing this, the thesis of natural law theory in ethics is that natural law makes the foundational principles of practical rationality for mankind, and it possesses such status by nature. The thought that natural law creates the foundational principles of practical rationality implies that

Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 11

Questions - Assignment Example Finally they will formulate a screening process. Staffing professional will perform other duties apart from recruiting such as; 2. Training and evaluation- candidate while in probations staffing professionals will monitor their performance and make recommendations. They will advice management on whether to retrain or recruit another candidate(s). Organization’s effort of retaining their workforce in a given period of time (sometimes a financial year). Retention is targeted on high performing and valuable employees. The other group of low performers will be retrained or fired to save the organization some costs. 2. Training executives- staffing professional undertake executive training to improve competence and efficiency. Assessment is made before training to determine the strengths and weaknesses of individual executives. 5. After hiring the candidate must be trained while being monitored to ensure he qualifies in actual job environment. This period is known as probation and will influence the next step by the staffing managers. Management will find strategies to retain employees to reduce turnover costs. Retaining high performing employee will ensure continuity and avoid unnecessary recruiting costs. Strategies will range from training to motivation of the existing work force. Some low performing employees leaving will benefit the organization from making losses. Assessment of the workforce will show low performances. The organization is more profitable without their contribution. These employees might be placed in an area which they are unqualified hence leaving will benefit them. High morale and outstanding performance by employee will result in low turnover. Employee retention or non retention will result in high turnover an organization. To correct high turnover managers and staffing professionals will correct factors affecting retention. Staffing professionals are very crucial

Mercury Athletic Footwear Essay Example for Free

Mercury Athletic Footwear Essay John Liedtke head of Active Gear, Inc. (AGI) is contemplating whether to invest in Mercury Athletic a subsidiary of West Coast Fashions (WCF). Mercury was purchased by WCF in hopes to increase business revenue however this was not the case. Business did not do as expected, WCF was then eager to abandon its apparel. John Liedtke saw this as an opportunity to take over Mercury and as result increase its business revenue. In order to determine whether this is an essential business opportunity John needs to complete preliminary financial valuations to make a solid decision. Active Gear’s current income statements and balance sheets have made it evident that the firm has a lot of potential for growth when acquiring an additional company. After maintaining simple production and supply chains AGI avoided the worst of industry write-downs and missed profit opportunities (Luehrman, Helprin (2009). In comparison to other larger industry’s AGI has a strong operating margin. Even though AGI is a profitable firm it has a downfall that it is much smaller than many of its competitors and is slowly becoming a disadvantage. In order to foresee future growth AGI should take the necessary measures to incorporate Mercury Athletic Footwear. Similar to AGI, Mercury has potential room for growth despite its former acquisition with West Coast Fashions. In order to determine Mercury’s future financial growth John should use financial forecasting. This is essential for budgeting as well as planning purposes. The most obvious involves using cash flow forecasts (Formula shown on Exhibit 1). Cash flow forecasts are used to predict account balances several years into the future and indicates what is expected to exist during a forecast period (Gabehart Valuation Services. (2003). In conducting a 5 year projection from 2006 to 2011 in both the income statement and balance sheets John can identify Mercury’s net worth and highlight what its financial revenue maybe (Formula shown on Exhibit 1). These forecasts results are based on historic facts and can be adjusted. In doing this John can clearly see whether processes are in control or out of control for example how inventory changes affect finance costs and whether the investment is worth making. This also makes it clear what financing options are more suitable in the long term and which ones would cause problems, as a result avoid any surprises (Olley (2006). The discount rate of acquiring Mercury is also essential to know. Since discount cash flow is a valuation method used to estimate investment opportunities. Its purpose is to estimate money received from an investment and adjust for time value money (Harman (2011). In this case a 12% forecast was estimated and reflected a positive factor toward PV and NPV. There are however, some circumstances where discount cash flow can be a challenge for example, the most prevailing is when cash flow projections increase for each year in the forecast. It is then assumed that a company will mature in such a way that their maintainable growth rates will lean toward long-term rate of economic growth in the long run (Harman (2011). This intern becomes a challenge for the company against unexpected risks. In consideration to Mercury’s financial history and projections it would be in the best interest for AGI to move forward and invest in Mercury. This would increase revenue for AGI and bring in a new customer market. Prior to doing so John will need to perform a financial forecast as previously discussed. The review of general factors and considerations related to the preparation of forecasts needs to be in order as well. To begin John will need to compare each given year’s net worth on the balance sheet to the next. Assuming the cash flow is increasing and positive figures are shown it can be determine that revenue is coming in. However, most importantly if the Net Present Value (NPV) reflects a negative number or is smaller than zero then the investment should be rejected. In this case NPV is positive therefore John should accept the investment. Using this determination John will be able to make a confidant decision. The use of predicting income figures is important as it recognizes a company’s future benefits and is highly stressed in a company especially when determining an investment opportunity.

Surveillance Technology And Monitoring Criminology Essay

Surveillance Technology And Monitoring Criminology Essay Post 9/11, it seems many people are content to accept increased monitoring, surveillance and incursions into their private lives to support what is sold as enhanced safeguards to individual and national security. Yet, there are lurking dangers in such tacit acceptance. Critically analyse with illustrations, contrasting different criminological viewpoints in your answer. Surveillance technology and monitoring has been increasing, especially in the wake of 9/11, however it has two faces,  [1]  on the one hand providing safety and security to protect the public and aiding national security, but on the other hand it provides an intrusive interference into peoples private lives and it can curtail rights, creating a division within society. There has been a change in criminological ideologies and the way that crime is dealt with. We now live in what is called a surveillance society.  [2]  In Discipline and Punish,  [3]  Foucault wrote about the brutal system of punishment, which focused on the infliction of pain on the body that existed in the 1700s, which was replaced by the prison, eighty years later.  [4]  This was seen as an efficient way of punishing as it is based on the technology of power. Foucault referred to this as discipline based around surveillance, which uses a variety of subtle techniques to control and manage the offender in ever more finely graded ways.  [5]  Foucault used Benthams panopticon prison design as a metaphor, to describe the role that surveillance played inside the prison. The circular prison design, featuring a central guards tower from which a guard can see into every single prison cell while themselves remaining hidden, separates out the prisoners, thus helping control order in the prison, but also generates knowledge and practices relating to the prisoners through facilitating study of them as individuals.  [6]  It was thought that this constant visibility would bring about a sense of vulnerability in the prisoners, which, in turn, would lead them to control themselves and progressively the exercise of power over the inmate should become unnecessary as they exercise self discipline.  [7]   A contemporary example is provided by Shearing and Stenning,  [8]  in relation to control within Disney World, which they termed instrumental discipline. The control structures and activities have other functions which are highlighted so that the control function is overshadowed. For example, employees wish visitors a happy day and a good time from the moment they arrive as well as maintaining order, so that the control and surveillance is unnoticed but its effects are ever present. Potential trouble is anticipated and prevented by the surveillance of omnipresent employees who detect and rectify the slightest deviation. As a consequence the control becomes consensual, effected with the willing co-operation if those being controlled, which allows coercion to be reduced to a minimum, much like Foucaults description of Benthams panopticon. It is an extraordinarily effective form of control where people conform due to the pleasures of consuming the goods that corporate power has to o ffer. Surveillance is pervasive and it is not in the form of the Big Brother state, it is defined by private authorities designed to further the interest of the Disney Corporation than a moral discipline which shapes and sustains a particular order. Within Disney World the control is embedded, preventative, subtle and co-operative and requires no knowledge of the individual, therefore it is not intrusive or invading peoples privacy as they continue to enjoy the time spent at Disney World, without realising that they are subject to control. Since the 1970s fear of crime has come to be regarded as a problem quite distinct from actual crime and victimization, and distinctive policies have been developed that aim to reduce fear levels, rather than to reduce crime.  [9]  Foucault was concerned about knowledge-production,  [10]  which is now more readily available and more easily accessible through news on the television and the internet. This has given rise to an information society,  [11]  which led to an increase of fear but also earlier and accurate predictions of current and future criminal behaviour and methods in order to safeguard against them as crime has been re-dramatised in the media. Media may construct groups who are feared and seen as outsiders e.g. paedophiles and terrorists and not only does their exclusion increase their insecurity but also everyone else feels more insecure because of the risk they have been told these groups pose. The rest of the population needs to be protected from these dang erous people who should be controlled by fairly strong authoritarian State action.  [12]  This is how and why surveillance is sold to consumers by governments and commercial organisations as benign and in society best interest and it is why  [13]  there is a lack of resistance to and largely complacent acceptance of, surveillance systems by society in general. During the twentieth-century there was a shift from normalising individual offenders (post crime) to pre-crime  [14]  management by reducing opportunities of risks posed by actual and would-be offenders. This was represented in Feeley and Simons New Penology,  [15]  which concerned actuarialism and anticipating the future and assessed risks to prevent crime. A range of risk calculation techniques that underpin crime control policies which seek to identify and manage groups of people according to their assorted levels of dangerousness  [16]  were developed. Within the theory of managerialism, developed a practice of targeting resources (on crime hot-spots, career criminals, repeat victims, and high risk offenders); gate-keeping to exclude trivial or low-risk cases (except where these are deemed to be linked to more serious public safety issues); and a generalised cost-consciousness in the allocation of criminal justice resources.  [17]  This was seen as economic, effic ient and effective within the public sector, where strategies were employed by police organisations including the increased use of surveillance, proactive targeting of people and places, and the rise of problem-oriented policing and intelligence-led policing,  [18]  which was prominent with the application of scarce resources for the worse risks. A modern example of this is the airport security system, which now uses biometric sensors to obtain various measurements of biological features unique to each individual, such as iris pattern, fingerprint or handprint, and comparing this data to previously recorded data of the same type in a database.  [19]  These screening techniques are then used to identify typical offender characteristics, where it is important to maintain security and to flag-up certain passengers as being high risk based on simple calculations. Passengers scoring above a certain threshold can be searched, questioned or investigated further, or discretely put under surveillance within the airport terminal.  [20]  Another example includes the use of automatic number plate recognition (ANPR), which works by scanning passing vehicle registration plates and checking them against various relevant digitised databases, to ensure that the vehicle has insurance and to check any document irregularity with the driv er. This form of surveillance is more intrusive than foot-traffic by closed-circuit television (CCTV) that normally leaves those observed anonymous.  [21]   Critics of such risk checklists claim that this can lead to social sorting,  [22]  which may involve stereotypes of race, religious faith, nationality and gender, for example, to be aggregated to define target markets and risky populations, which can have far reaching impact on life chances, and of social exclusion and discrimination.  [23]  It could be argued that the aforementioned are only present in poorly researched and implemented screening systems, and that properly researched, evidence-based screening systems that have been properly evaluated and revised as necessary are a useful additional tool.  [24]  However, the airport security system relates back to Benthams Panopticon as individuals are being watched but do not know the extent to which they are being watched, if at all, but may modify their behaviour nevertheless. This disciplinary surveillance manifests in all areas of social life, including health and medicine, education, the military and factories.  [2 5]  Advanced security and surveillance technologies may help to curtail feelings of insecurity amongst the public but the degree of interference should reflect the level of the risk or dangerousness that the surveillance is monitoring and trying to prevent. This intrusion may seem to be justified within airport security due to recent dangers relating to terrorism, importing and exporting of illegal drugs and illegal immigration. Protecting the public has become the dominant theme of penal policy.  [26]   Deleuze  [27]  points to electronic tagging of offenders rather than being detained in a prison, thus todays society is able to punish and control even while setting free. Today, many offenders being electronically monitored are not in fact offenders whom a court has so sentenced, but are actually prisoners who early conditional release from their medium-term prison sentences who would be monitored at home for the remainder of the time that they would have been in prison.  [28]  Tracking tags, like electronic access cards, can permit/disallow or warn against entry to a particular zone or place, possibly at a particular time or day. The first generation of electronic tags did not have any capability of tracking an individual tagged offenders movement.  [29]  In recent years, a second generation of electronic tags, look set to supersede and replace the earlier generation tags. The GPS technology enables the tag to identify its exact geographical position, while the mobile cell phone technology enables the tag to relay this positional data back to a monitoring centre. Tags and key cards leave a little digital record in an archive each time they are used which can be used as a way to reconstruct events should something go awry. Tags can modulate a given offenders daily routine, thus there is potential to combine this mass of stored data to build up a picture of a persons activities, communications, interests, financial transactions, and so on.  [30]  Cohen  [31]  talked about a blurring of boundaries so that it is sometimes difficult to tell where the prison ends and the community begins, due to the use of custody and electronic monitoring. This type of technology is extremely intrusive on part of the offender and may seek to segregate them from the community and also affects the family of the offender. However, it does not seem to affect the public at large. Jones  [32]  points out that intelligence agencies use of surveillance practices (i.e. spying) and their use of ongoing monitoring systems designed to alert them to certain circumstances of interest or concern. CCTV can also be combined with facial recognition software to match facial image data stored on databases of known individuals.  [33]  Even though this may be seen as intrusive, there would be a reason behind why the suspects image was held in the first place. This would flag-up known offenders which, would make it a simpler task for police investigation if such technologies existed. The inescapability of surveillance and compliance with it is something that many people find objectionable for many reasons, such as, loss of privacy, autonomy, trust or control and may thus actively resist or seek to subvert it. However, it is more accepted if the information obtained is recognised as being legitimate.  [34]  If cameras are pointing in the correct direction and images are being recorded then a visual record of the offence is made which could be used to apprehend the offender and/or secure a conviction in a court, as it may be available in evidence, thereby justifying the use of CCTV. Poor image and recording quality seem likely to become less significant as technology improves.  [35]  However, this may not act as a deterrent as crime may be displaced so that offenders simply commit crimes where there are no cameras. There was belief that CCTV would deter people from committing crimes, however, research shows that CCTV schemes were not as effective at crime reduction as hoped. Welsh and Farrington  [36]  found that improved street light was more effective in reducing crime in city centres, that both were more effective in reducing property crimes than violent crimes, and that both measures were far more effective in reducing crime. They also noted that in Britain city centres CCTV cameras generally appear popular with the public. In 1991, Foucault  [37]  concentrated on the art of government where conduct was not controlled or governed by the criminal justice system alone but through a plethora of organisations, many of them private and many with a central role in other spheres such as commerce.  [38]  These include local authorities, health services and voluntary agencies.  [39]  Individuals are also expected to take responsibility for their own security. Each of these adds to the process of responsibilisation which has become part of modern control of crime and disorder.  [40]  Foucaults discussion of governmentality  [41]  included the rise of neo-liberalism, which recast the ideal role of the State from one as guarantor of security to one in which rule is progressively undertaken at a distance from the State. Cohen  [42]  talked about dispersal of discipline and stated that boundaries have also been blurred between the public and the private as the private sector comes to play an e ver-larger role. Privatised ownership of data raised anxiety of expandable mutability  [43]  and function creep,  [44]  which are concepts meaning that technology designed for one purpose can take on other functions, and data collected for one purpose can migrate for use in other ways that have potential to be deployed in broader contexts.  [45]  An example of this is where Transport for London will allow bulk data from its ANPR cameras used to log vehicles for congestion charging purposes to be viewed in real time by anti-terrorist officers of the Metropolitan Police for intelligence purposes.  [46]  The sharing of intelligence information between agencies could well be liable to unauthorised leakage  [47]  and potential abuse of data sharing. This may lead to breaches of the data protection, human rights and the erosion of privacy, as the public are unaware that data collected in relation to them is being used for unknown purposes, even though they may be legit imate. One way the law has sought to deal with this is through the Data Protection Act 1998, which requires that those who operate CCTV systems (data controllers) and who record images from which individuals can be identified, must register with the Information Commissioner and ensure that the system is operated in accordance with the data protection principles, however this legislation does not apply for intelligence purposes as described above. To conclude, procedural safeguards included surveillance cameras have come to be a routine presence on city streets and the risk of unrestrained State authorities, of arbitrary power and the violations of civil liberties seem no longer to figure so prominently in public concern.  [48]  Corbett  [49]  argues that increased surveillance is defensible if the data collected is used strictly for state security purposes, crime prevention and crime detection, to promote deterrence and encourage compliance of potential offenders, and when this fails, sanction them in the hope of future individual deterrence. For the time being, surveillance technologies are here to stay; it is the price that people need to pay in order to have improved national security for the safety and security of the mass population. However, is the State surveillance going too far with the form of surveillance on the roads, where cameras are permitted to reach into the private interior space of vehicles to photo graph a driver as a safeguard against penalty point fraud or where proposals have been made for mandatorily fitting cars with black boxes that can locate them in the event of a road crash?  [50]  A balance needs to be struck so that the State does not abuse its power, otherwise it will be accountable to Article 8.  [51]   Word count: 2, 498 Bibliography Question 2 Books Garland, D. 2001. The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society, Oxford University Press: Oxford. Hale, C., Hayward, K., Wahidin, A., Wincup, E., 2005. Criminology, Oxford University Press: Oxford Newburn, T., 2007. Criminology, Willan Publishing: Devon. Williams, K.., 2008. Textbook on Criminology, 6th edition, Oxford University Press: Oxford Articles Corbett, C. 2008. Techno-Surveillance of the Roads: High Impact and Low Interest, Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 10, 1-18 Shearing, C. Stenning, P. 1987. Say Cheese! The Disney Order that is not so Mickey Mouse, Private Policing, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. PP.317-323

Police Corruption Policing

Police Corruption Policing ‘Getting results in policing is more important than how they are achieved. Discuss this statement with reference to the notion of police ethics. Ethics is essential to policing as ethical policing develops and sustains trust between the police and the public it serves. Police corruption, noble cause corruption, Dirty Harry dilemma, Sykes and Matza (1957) Techniques of Neutralization theory, ethical egoism, and ‘Act v Rule utilitarianism are all specific ways of exploring unethical police behaviour being diverted from ethical behaviour, due to ethical laws protecting criminals ‘human rights. Thus begs the question, is gaining results in policing more important than how they are achieved? When the question is posed ‘can we be ethical? for the large majority of us, the answer is perfectly clear. However, with regards to the policing system it is a complicated dilemma that is yet to be properly controlled and prevented. Ethics is vital to policing as this ethical quality not only affects the police officer in question but also the police organisation as a whole. Ethics is not only concerned with the individual police officer but as well as the policies and laws that are enforced to protect everyones basic human rights. Police corruption is one form of unethical behaviour that is due to the authority and power placed and trusted upon the police officer. Power corrupts, and so with this perceptive view, police corruption comes in many stages of development. Kant describes police corruption as actions that â€Å"exploit the powers of law enforcements in return for considerations of private-regarding benefit that violate formal standards governing his or her conduct† (Kleinig, 1996: pg. 38). Police corruption consists of a chain of events that starts from an innocent stage where police officers are sometimes given things for free by the public due to their official status. This process consists of three hypothesis, such as; the society at large explanation, the structural explanation; and finally the ‘rotten-apple explanation (Pollock, 2006). The society-at-large explanation is concerned with the fact that police officers start to expect things to be free, once experiencing small-pay offs and bribes from the public, which leads to more serious crimes known as the structural explanation. This finally leads to the ‘rotten-apple explanation where the officer concerned is purely of dark character morally. One known form o f corruption is ‘noble cause corruption. ‘Noble Cause Corruption (Klockars, 1985), is an act on behalf of the police officer, who is committing a illegal and most certainly unethical crime, on good intentions, to justifiably reach an end result that is noble. For actions that are done for the sake of good are, nevertheless, morally wrong actions. The police officer(s) in question are only acting for the sake of what they ‘believe is morally right, but in fact it is not morally right; their belief is a false belief. For example, suppose a police officer forms a corrupt relationship with a suspected criminal and develops criminal acts to create a portfolio of evidence to convict the criminal. How ethical would this be, despite gaining positive results in policing? Noble cause corruption is strongly related to the ‘Dirty Harry phenomena and so an explanation of this phenomenon is due. The Dirty Harry Problem (Klockars, 1980) is based upon the notion that certain individuals of the police force turn to ‘dirty means of convicting a suspected criminal. Police officers who employ such ‘dirty means think that, by doing this, they achieve three things at the same time. The officer believes that what he/she is doing is morally right; their actions are lawful; and that the wider community will support such heroic behaviour (Thomson, 1999). The movie titled ‘Dirty Harry (Siegel, 1971) involved a fictional character named Inspector Harry Callahan (Clint Eastwood) who pursued a criminal named ‘Scorpio who kidnapped a 14 year old girl and demanded a $200, 000 ransom to release the girl who was buried with just enough air to last a few hours. Eventually Harry apprehends and tortures Scorpio into telling the location of the girl and gaining a forced confession from the suspect. An unethical procedure, but none the less, gaining ‘results (Siegel, 1971).Dirty harry was purposely given this title to the character, harry Callahan, because of the fact that he employs ‘dirty means of gaining positive results and infringing upon the criminals ‘human rights. ‘Dirty Harry, at the end of the film, took his badge and threw it into the river. This strongly suggested that he has lost faith in the effectiveness of the policing system and thus indicating his resignation (Siegel, 1971). When gaining positive results in policing, it can sometimes be in direct conflict with not following ethical boundaries, thus, being ethical is a rule that appears, according to the ‘Dirty Harry movie plot, to be in the favour of the criminal, technically putting the police officer at a disadvantage due to ‘criminal rights being made available to them. According to Sykes and Matzas ‘Techniques of Neutralization theory, unethical police officers justify their behaviour in one of five methods. Skyes and Matzas (1957) proposed the ‘Techniques of Neutralisation theory which demonstrates five basic methods of justifying deviant behaviour from the delinquent individual. The theory is relevant to police ethics as well as the fact that gaining results within the police service can never exceed the ethics of policing itself due to morality and basic human rights for which the police was based and built upon. ‘Techniques of neutralisation theory explains how lawbreakers are able to protect themselves from feeling of guilt and negative self-image by justifying their conduct. The five methods are: denial of responsibility, denial of injury, denial of victim, condemnation of condemners, and appealing to higher loyalties. Denial of responsibility is concerned with how, within the context of the police work, violence may be regarded as an appropriate and necessary reaction to defiant citizens. Denial of responsibility is established when the police officer in question believes that, where excessive force is used, he/she was provoked by the citizen and therefore ‘ethically rationalised his/her behaviour. This shifts responsibility for the use of force away from the officer to the citizen (Albanese, 2006). Denial of injury covers such areas as stealing and violating constitutional rights. Stealing from suspects for personal gain with the threat of blackmail if ever the suspect reported the officer to the police notes the power a police officer possess, given the position of the suspects situation. Kant suggests that â€Å"Whoever tells a lie, however well intended he might be, must answer for the consequences, however unforeseeable they were, and pay the penalty for them† (Klockars, 1996: pg. 79). Kant describes a perfect example that no matter what the situation may be, telling a lie is unacceptable. Fabrication of evidence is an excellent example as although it may help seal a conviction of a major known criminal, is none-the-less a false conviction. This brings ‘Kantian ethics into consideration. Kant believed that the term motive is the most important variable when considering what is ethical and what is not. To be more exact, motives can be defined by acting in a sense of duty towards others. For example, helping a person out of pity or to promote ones self in face of others is not a ethical, moral action, but out of remorse and unethical means. When considering a complex situation, such as a police officer protecting a witness from murder, what does one do? Such an example goes against Kants beliefs on moral, ethical values. Denial of victim is concerned with those who run from police, use illegal drugs, or defy authority are ‘threats predetermined as dangerous and are in need of ‘punishment. This perception gives the notion of the police being the ‘saviour of all deviant acts and that they are justifiable in the eyes of the law and that these aforementioned acts must be punished to sustain control and authority through the wider community and the state as a whole. Condemnation of the condemners lies with the notion that the problem lies not with the officers motives or behaviour but with the rules, motives, and perception of those who would control and judge them. The police argue that not only do they fight criminality but also have to do battle with public criticism, judges who are too lenient, citizen lawsuits and citizen complaints against the police system. This gives a ‘loophole for criminals which makes police work more difficult. With such added hurdles, condemnation of the condemners seem rational and logical from the police officers perspective. Appealing to higher loyalties is concerned with the fact that police officers will always protect ‘their own against any case of accusations or complaints against a police officer. However, protecting another officer even when this involves unethical and illegal conduct is expected and regarded as noble as it demonstrates loyalty and solidarity. ‘Power corrupts, and so with this ‘police power, the officer will use this power to appeal to higher loyalties for their own personal gain. Personal gain is a one of many attributes of human qualities to achieve our goals in whatever means necessary. Such natural behaviour is assessed by ‘ethical egoism which critically examines our own hunger for wants and desires. Ethical Egoism (Neyround, 2001) is a theory of human nature that states that we all have a strong desire for furthering our wants and desires. By nature, we are motivated to pursue our own wants and desires and, therefore, should act in accordance with our nature by following them (Neyround, 2001). Despite living in a civilised world, living according to the laws of the ‘system, inevitable human nature, it seems, takes a hold of our behaviour when presented with opportunities to further our desires. We all naturally possess wants and needs, however, the morally relevant question to consider (with regards to unethical policing) is when, where, and to what extents are we justified in pursuing them? The claim being made by ethical egoism is not simply that we have wants and needs; rather, it is that we are ‘morally obligated to pursue them on all occasions. Due to individual egoism, it would appear that furthering ones personal desires seems to be the corruption of human nature; that we are all out for ourselves on a majority. If ethical egoism theory is correct in its perception of humans desire for pursuing our own interests then surely police corruption is on a course of eternal reoccurrences of continuous self-indulgent behaviour, placed in a unrealistic police system to resist the temptation of abusing ones position. A major critique of ethical egoism is that it does not provide a solution for conflicts that arise between competing self-interested individuals. Simply stated, this criticism suggests that our happiness and aspirations often comes into conflict with other individuals (Neyround, 2001). Further-more, this morality should establish rules of conduct that enables the peaceful and harmonious resolution of conflict. However, ethical egoism provides no such rules on principles. Instead, it understands life to consist of a never-ending series of conflicts on which each of us struggle to ‘come out on top. By the nature of police officers everyday work, police officers are routinely placed in situations where personal advantages can easily be furthered through unethical and illegal means. ‘Act versus Rule Utilitarianism (Quinton, 2003) demonstrates an argument of why police officers break the law. Act utilitarianism states and argues that ‘ethical laws are first decide whether public action would be taken if ever they disagreed with the laws were to be enforced upon the public. This is then, in turn, is further decided whether the law generates the most happiness for the public. However, critics of this theory argue that the minority, whether groups or individuals, would then be treated unfairly and biased upon, thus, not an ethical method to follow. This coincides with the notion of corrupt police officers fabricating evidence to convict an innocent civilian. It may please the majority of the population if this civilian was known for criminal acts in the past and present but it doesnt justify the action to wrongly convict an innocent. ‘Rule Utilitarianism (Quinton, 2003), on the other hand, determines whether a rule should be followed. ‘Rule Utilitarianism argues that if a rule (law) pleases the majority of the population, then, it is in the publics interest to follow this ‘rule, despite the objectionable minority. Capital punishment was once a rule followed by UK citizens as it resulted in the happiness of the majority with regards to killing extreme deviant individuals, even if an innocent had their life taken by mistake, as this overall pleased the population despite the ‘odd innocent loss of life. Critics argue that this reduces rule utilitarianism to act utilitarianism and the rules become meaningless (Quinton, 2003). From such examples, and as an ethical based theory overall, utilitarianism is not a perfect system, thus, flawed. Ethics will either make or break an officer and the decision they make will either strengthen or weaken their ethical values. Police corruption, whether for noble or deviant reasons, weakens the officers moral values and only further leads to deviant temptation. However, temptation and desire appears to be of humans natural instinct to come out top and a means of furthering ones edge over another. Ethics can very much go against the officer inclined to solve a case, such as the Dirty Harry dilemma, such as the criminals basic human rights (although non-deserving) benefits only the offender and develops a loop hole for the offender to escape from justice. Police officers can be taught ethics to a certain degree, but it is the officers own personal benefit to resist the urge of infringing upon criminals rights and also taking an advantage of ones position. This loop hole will promote a real dilemma for future policing and, thus, ethics is likely to play a prominent role in policing in the 21st century. (2124 words)

Salt Marshes :: essays research papers

Oceanography  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Salt Marshes Salt marshes are coastal wetlands rich in marine life, which are covered by water at least once per month. They are found in the intertidal zones along low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater. These marshes can be found near the Great South Bay and the Long Island Sound. The entire south shore of Long Island is considered to be a salt marsh important to the health of the marine life. Beginning in Jamaica Bay and extending to Montauk Point, Long Islands salt marches help remove toxic chemicals that are caused by pollution, thus making them a vital part of the eco-system. The Salt Marshes contain different types of grasses that grow out of the water and along the water's edge. This grass can be seen when the tide is low and is covered by water when the tide comes in. This grass helps hold the soil together by dispersing any wave energy and creating a breeding ground for many important marine animals. Also, the plants act as a natural filter, removing any chemicals that might be in the seawater. Some of the plants that are found in salt marshes are: Salt Marsh Grass or Spartina Alterniflora and Cord grass as well as reeds, sedges and golden rod. At low tide, nutrient-rich water flows from the marsh back into the sea, feeding the plankton upon which all other life depends. Peat, which is what the march is mostly made of, is very absorbent. In some areas, it limits coastal flooding by containing the water that comes in during a very high or storm-driven tide. Peat also acts as a filter, cleaning water by removing various compounds and either storing or breaking them down. The salt marsh is also an important breeding ground for many species of marine life. These animals use the marsh and its tall grasses for protection from predators. Some of the marine life is: clams, mussels, shrimp, oysters and small fishes such as killies and spearing. Some mammals use the salt marsh also. These animals include: mice, skunks and many, many species of water fowl. These animals use the marsh not only as a home, but as a place to find food as well. There are destructive forces at work against the salt marsh. While a slowly rising sea level has had some effect, the greatest destruction of salt marshes that has taken place is urban and suburban development. Salt Marshes :: essays research papers Oceanography  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Salt Marshes Salt marshes are coastal wetlands rich in marine life, which are covered by water at least once per month. They are found in the intertidal zones along low-energy coastlines, forming along the margins of estuaries, where freshwater from the land mixes with seawater. These marshes can be found near the Great South Bay and the Long Island Sound. The entire south shore of Long Island is considered to be a salt marsh important to the health of the marine life. Beginning in Jamaica Bay and extending to Montauk Point, Long Islands salt marches help remove toxic chemicals that are caused by pollution, thus making them a vital part of the eco-system. The Salt Marshes contain different types of grasses that grow out of the water and along the water's edge. This grass can be seen when the tide is low and is covered by water when the tide comes in. This grass helps hold the soil together by dispersing any wave energy and creating a breeding ground for many important marine animals. Also, the plants act as a natural filter, removing any chemicals that might be in the seawater. Some of the plants that are found in salt marshes are: Salt Marsh Grass or Spartina Alterniflora and Cord grass as well as reeds, sedges and golden rod. At low tide, nutrient-rich water flows from the marsh back into the sea, feeding the plankton upon which all other life depends. Peat, which is what the march is mostly made of, is very absorbent. In some areas, it limits coastal flooding by containing the water that comes in during a very high or storm-driven tide. Peat also acts as a filter, cleaning water by removing various compounds and either storing or breaking them down. The salt marsh is also an important breeding ground for many species of marine life. These animals use the marsh and its tall grasses for protection from predators. Some of the marine life is: clams, mussels, shrimp, oysters and small fishes such as killies and spearing. Some mammals use the salt marsh also. These animals include: mice, skunks and many, many species of water fowl. These animals use the marsh not only as a home, but as a place to find food as well. There are destructive forces at work against the salt marsh. While a slowly rising sea level has had some effect, the greatest destruction of salt marshes that has taken place is urban and suburban development.

John Cover :: Biography

â€Å"Jack is an unsung hero. He did something great for the world, saved a lot of lives and prevented a lot of injuries,† said retired police captain, Greg Meyer (Jack Cover, page 1 of 3). Rick Smith, the chief executive and founder of Taser International, said in a statement,† Jack was one of the most influential inventors of modern times, who affected the lives of hundreds of thousands of law enforcement officers, citizens, and even criminal suspects,† (Taser Inventor Dead at 88, page 2 of 4). From the quotes of these two men, it is clearly seen that John Cover did something tremendous that would affect the lives of thousands. Many people have never heard of this man, so they do not know what he invented. Well, this man invented the Taser, the non-lethal weapon that uses pulses of electrical current to disrupt the target’s ability to control his or her muscles† (John Cover: Inventor of the Taser, page 1 of 2). The term â€Å"open-minded† mean s, â€Å" Receptive to new ideas or to reason† (The American Heritage Desk Dictionary and Thesaurus, page 520). John Cover was an extremely open-minded inventor who kept an open mind to any new ideas he or his assistants came up with. John Higson Cover was born on April 6, 1920, in New York. Cover was later nick-named â€Å"Jack†, which was what most people came to know him by. Cover grew up in Chicago where his father was the Professor of Economics at the University of Chicago (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article5791955.ece). No other records of his parents or childhood were found. Cover then went to the University of Chicago, where he earned his PhD in physics ( www.timesonline.co). Cover began to invent things such as cooked food testers and voice activated switches in his spare time, early in his career (http://www.nbcfw.com/news/archive/Taser-Inventor-Dead-at-88.htmlcorder=reverse). Cover was a test pilot in the United Stated Air Force in World War II. In 1952-1964, Cover was employed by the American Aviation. Then, in 1970, Cover set up the Taser Systems Company (www.timesonline.co). No claimed religion was found. â€Å"Cover’s goal was to invent a non-lethal weapon to combat the plane hijackings and riots that were occurring in the 1960s,† said Rick Smith, chief executive and founder of Taser International (www.nbcfw.com). The battery operated Taser projects darts attached to insulated wires to give electric shocks over a range of a few meters (www.timesonline.co). Though it was designed to be a non-lethal weapon, the Taser has caused a few deaths (Jack Cover, Taser Inventor, page 1 of 4).

Bioremediation

BIOREMEDIATION Bioremediation is such type of technology in which microorganism, fungi, bacteria, plant and there is use to convert polluted condition in to original condition. Through bioremediation process microorganism act on pollutant or on chemicals due to which pollution occur and help that thing to come back in its original condition. Bioremediation is an option to offers the possibility to destroy or renders various harmful thing through natural biological activity. PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION Bioremediation is the field of environmental biotechnology . y definition bioremediation is the use of microorganism, to degrade environment pollutant in to less toxic form. in this microorganism may be indigenous to a contaminant area or may be isolated from different area and brought to that area. Microorganisms start utilizing toxic substance and convert in to non toxic form from toxic form. In bioremediation metabolic process is also involved through which different enzyme release and act on toxic substances or on contaminants due to this biodegradation occur. When microorganism bought to contaminated or polluted site to enhance degradation that process is called bioaugmentation. For bioremediation to be effective, microorganism must enzymatically attack the pollutants and converts them in to non toxic form. n Bioremediation has its limitation, some contaminants such as chlorinated organic compound and aromatic hydrocarbon are resistant to microbial attack . bioremediation techniques are typically more economical than traditional method. FACTORS OF BIOREMEDIATION These factors include the existence of a microbial population capable of degrading the pollutants, the availability of contaminants to the microbial population, the environment factor (soil,temperature,pH,the presence of oxygen or other electron acceptor, and nutrients. ) MICROBIAL POPULATION FOR BIOREMEDIATION PROCESS Microorganism isolated from from any environment condition. microbes adapt nd grow at subzero temperatures ,as well as extreme heat, in water with excess of oxygen and in anaerobic condition,with the presence of hazardous condition or hazardous compound or any waste stream. the main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. because of microbes and other biological system ,these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. Microbes can be divide in to groups according to their activity and condition. Anaerobic- in the absence of oxygen. naerobic bacteria cannot used frequently as a aerobic bacteria. There is an increa sing interest in anaerobic bacteria use for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)in river sediment,ination of dechlorination of solvent trichloroethylene(TCE),and chloroform Lingninolytic fungi-fungi such as the white rot fungus phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the ablity to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrate used include starw,sawdust,or corn cobs. Methylotrophs-aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. the initialenzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation,methane monooxygenase,has a broad substrate range and active against a wide range of compounds ,including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane For degradationnit is necessary that bacteria and contaminant in proper contact and in proper amount. Class of contaminants |Specific examples |Aerobic |Anaerobic |More potential sources | |Chlorinated solvents |Trichloroethylene | |+ |Drycleaners | | |Perchloroethylene | | |Chemical manufacture Electrical | |Polychlorinated biphenyls |4-Chlorobiphenyl | |+ |manufacturing Power station | | |4,4-Dichlorobiphenyl | | |Railway yards Timber treatment | | | | | |Landfills | |Chlorinated phenol |Pentachlorophenol | |+ | | |â€Å"BTEX† Benzene Toluene |+ |+ |Oil production and storage | | |Ethylbenzene Xylene | | |Gas w ork sites | | | | | |Airports | | | | | |Paint manufacture Port | | | | | |facilities Railway yards | | | | | |Chemical manufacture | |Polyaromatic hydrocarbons |Naphthalene Antracene |+ | |Oil production and storage | |(PAHs) |Fluorene Pyrene | | |Gas work sites Coke plants | | |Benzo(a)pyrene | | |Engine works Landfills | | | | | |Tar production and storage | | | | | |Boiler ash dump sites Power | | | | | |stations | | |Atrazine Carbaryl | | |Agriculture | | |Carbofuran Coumphos | | |Timber treatment plants | | |Diazinon Glycophosphate | | |Pesticide manufacture | |Pesticides |Parathion Propham |+ |+ |Recreational areas Landfills | | |2,4-D | | | | ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan- isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e. g. , see Table 2). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells. Table 2 Composition of a microbial cell. ElementPercentageElementPercentage |Carbon |50 |Sodium |1 | |Nitrogen |14 |Calcium |0,5 | |Oxygen |20 |Magnesium |0,5 | |Hydrogen |8 |Chloride |0,5 | |Phosphorous |3 |Iron |0,2 | |Sulfur |1 |All others |0,3 | |Potassium |1 | | | ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan- isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e. g. , see Table 2). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells. Table 2 Composition of a microbial cell. ElementPercentageElementPercentage Carbon |50 |Sodium |1 | |Nitrogen |14 |Calcium |0,5 | |Oxygen |20 |Magnesium |0,5 | |Hydrogen |8 |Chloride |0,5 | |Phosphorous |3 |Iron |0,2 | |Sulfur |1 |All others |0,3 | |Potassium |1 | | | Microbial growth and activity are readily affected by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a nar- row range, so that it is important to achieve optimal conditions. If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects bio- chemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them double for each 10  °C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily degraded under aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To increase the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organic matter can be applied. Low soil permeability can impede move- ment of water, nutrients, and oxygen; hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques. BIOREMEDIATION STRATEGIES Different techniques are employed depending on the degree of saturation and aeration of an area. In situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal distur- bance. Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). Bioaugmentation techniques involve the addition of microorganisms with the ability to degrade pollutants. In situ bioremediation These techniques [11,12] are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and less disturbance since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. In many soils effective oxy- gen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a few centimeters to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases. The most important land treatments are: Bioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air flow rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatiliza- tion and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infil- tration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment. Biosparging. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contam- inants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there- by increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diam- eter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system. Bioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: 1) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegrad- able waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed. Ex situ bioremediation Ex situ bioremediation These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a pre- pared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limited to the treatment of superficial 10–35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much atten – leum hydrocarbons they are a refined version of landfarming that tend to control physical losses of the contaminants by leaching and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Bioreactors. Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the pro- cessing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered con- tainment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to cre- ate a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil- bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of degrading target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre treat- ment (e. g. , excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be stripped from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e. g. , vacuum extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor. Table 4 summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of bioremediation. Table 4 Summary of bioremediation str ategies. Technology |Examples |Benefits |Limitations |Factors to consider | |In situ |In situ bioremediation |Most cost efficient |Environmental constraints |Biodegradative abilities of | | |Biosparging Bioventing |Noninvasive Relatively |Extended treatment time |indigenous microorganisms | | |Bioaugmentation |passive Natural attenuation |Monitoring difficulties |Presence of metals and | | | |processes | |other inorganics Environmental| | | |Treats soil and water | |parameters Biodegradability of| | | | | |pollutants Chemical solubility| | | | | |Geological factors | | | | | |Distribution of pollutants | |Ex situ |Landfarming Composting |Cost efficient |Space requirements |See above | | |Biopiles |Low cost |Extended treatment time | | | | |Can be done on site |Need to control abiotic | | | | | |loss | | | | |Mass transfer problem | | | | | |Bioavailability limitation| | |Bioreactors |Slurry reactors |Rapid degradation kinetic |Soil requires excavation |See above Bioaugmentation | | |Aqueous reactors |Optimized environmental |Relatively high cost |Toxicity of amendments Toxic | | | |parameters |capital |concentrations of contaminants| | | |Enhances mass transfer |Relatively high operating | | | | |Effective use of inoculants |cost | | | | |and surfactants | | | Advantages of bioremediation †¢Bioremediation is a natural process and is therefore perceived by the public as an acceptable waste treatment process for contaminated material such as soil. Microbes able to degrade the con- taminant increase in numbers when the contaminant is present; when the contaminant is degrad- ed, the biodegradative population declines. The residues for the treatment are usually harmless products and include carbon dioxide, water, and cell biomass. †¢Theoretically, bioremediation is useful for the complete destruction of a wide variety of contam- inants. Many compounds that are legally considered to be hazardous can be transformed to harm- less products. This eliminates the chance of future liability associated with treatment and dispos- al of contaminated material. †¢Instead of transferring contaminants from one environmental medium to another, for example, from land to water or air, the complete destruction of target pollutants is possible. †¢Bioremediation can often be carried out on site, often without causing a major disruption of nor- mal activities. This also eliminates the need to transport quantities of waste off site and the poten- tial threats to human health and the environment that can arise during transportation. Bioremediation can prove less expensive than other technologies that are used for clean-up of hazardous waste. Disadvantages of bioremediation †¢Bioremediation is limited to those compounds that are biodegradable. Not all compounds are sus- ceptible to rapid and complete degradation. †¢There are some concerns that the products of biodegradation may be more persistent or toxic than the parent compound. †¢Biological processes are often highly specific. Important site factors required for success include the presence of metabolically capable microbial populations, suitable environmental growth con- ditions, and appropriate levels of nutrients and contaminants. It is difficult to extrapolate from bench and pilot-scale studies to full-scale field operations. †¢Research is needed to develop and engineer bioremediation technologies that are appropriate for sites with complex mixtures of contaminants that are not evenly dispersed in the environment. Contaminants may be present as solids, liquids, and gases. †¢Bioremediation often takes longer than other treatment options, such as excavation and removal of soil or incineration. †¢Regulatory uncertainty remains regarding acceptable performance criteria for bioremediation. There is no accepted definition of â €Å"clean†, evaluating performance of bioremediation is difficult, and there are no acceptable endpoints for bioremediation treatments. PHYTOREMEDIATION Although the application of microbe biotechnology has been successful with petroleum-based con- stituents, microbial digestion has met limited success for widespread residual organic and metals pol- lutants. Vegetation- based remediation shows potential for accumulating, immobilizing, and transform- ing a low level of persistent contaminants. In natural ecosystems, plants act as filters and metabolize substances generated by nature. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology that uses plants to remove contaminants from soil and water [14–16]. The term â€Å"phytoremediation† is relatively new, coined in 1991. Its potential for encouraging the biodegradation of organic contaminants requires further research, although it may be a promising area for the future. We can find five types of phytoremediation techniques, classified based on the contaminant fate: phytoextraction, phytotransformation, phytostabilization, phytodegradation, rhizofiltration, even if a combination of these can be found in nature. Phytoextraction or phytoaccumulation is the process used by the plants to accumulate contami- nants into the roots and aboveground shoots or leaves. This technique saves tremendous remediation cost by accumulating low levels of contaminants from a widespread area. Unlike the degradation mech- anisms, this process produces a mass of plants and contaminants (usually metals) that can be transport- ed for disposal or recycling. Phytotransformation or phytodegradation refers to the uptake of organic contaminants from soil, sediments, or water and, subsequently, their transformation to more stable, less toxic, or less mobile form. Metal chromium can be reduced from hexavalent to trivalent chromium, which is a less mobile and noncarcinogenic form. Phytostabilization is a technique in which plants reduce the mobility and migration of contami- nated soil. Leachable constituents are adsorbed and bound into the plant structure so that they form a stable mass of plant from which the contaminants will not reenter the environment. Phytodegradation or rhizodegradation is the breakdown of contaminants through the activity existing in the rhizosphere. This activity is due to the presence of proteins and enzymes produced by the plants or by soil organisms such as bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Rhizodegradation is a symbiotic rela- tionship that has evolved between plants and microbes. Plants provide nutrients necessary for the microbes to thrive, while microbes provide a healthier soil environment. Rhizofiltration is a water remediation technique that involves the uptake of contaminants by plant roots. Rhizofiltration is used to reduce contamination in natural wetlands and estuary areas. In Table 5, we can see an overview of phytoremediation applications. Table 5 Overview of phytoremediation applications. TechniquePlant mechanismSurface medium PhytoextractionUptake and concentration of metal viaSoils direct uptake into the plant tissue with subsequent removal of the plants PhytotransformationPlant uptake and degradation of organicSurface water, groundwater compounds PhytostabilizationRoot exudates cause metal to precipitateSoils, groundwater, mine tailing and become less available PhytodegradationEnhances microbial degradation inSoils, groundwater within rhizosphere rhizosphere RhizofiltrationUptake of metals into plant rootsSurface water and water pumped PhytovolatilizationPlants evaportranspirate selenium, mercury,Soils and groundwater and volatile hydrocarbons Vegetative capRainwater is evaportranspirated by plantsSoils to prevent leaching contaminants from disposal sites Phytoremediation is well suited for use at very large field sites where other methods of remedia- tion are not cost effective or practicable; at sites with a low concentration of contaminants where only polish treatment is required over long periods of time; and in conjunction with other technologies where vegetation is used as a final cap and closure of the site. There are some limitations to the technology that it is necessary to consider carefully before it is selected for site remediation: long duration of time for remediation, potential contamination of the vegetation and food chain, and difficulty establishing and maintaining vegetation at some sites with high toxic levels. .